Battery storage
You want to build at the economic minimum and optimised for energy. You are looking for energy supply concepts that go beyond the heat pump, the photovoltaic array or the conventional battery storage unit. You are open to any technology, and the highest attainable degree of energy autonomy in the building is your goal?
We advise you on the current state of the art and on today's technical options for energy supply — in residential as well as in non-residential construction.
Our vision for tomorrow is the energy-autonomous building network: units kept as small as possible that act together locally as a virtual power plant.
The starting point is not the product but the building: its demand across the year, its storage capacity and its interplay with the surroundings. Only from that does the sensible technology follow — technology-neutral and without committing to a type of plant in advance.
Consulting and calculation
- Energy concepts, including sorption and latent heat storage
- Building simulation for demand coverage (yield of heat pumps and solar thermal systems)
- Yield forecasts for wind turbines (hourly simulation, horizontal and vertical axis)
Talk to us while your project is still in the concept phase — that is where it is decided what remains economically feasible later on.
The right battery is not decided by the price per kilowatt-hour alone, but by storage duration, number of cycles, power demand and installation site. Lithium-ion batteries are strong at short, powerful discharges and have the higher efficiency. Redox flow batteries come into their own where discharge is steady over many hours and cycling continues for decades with almost no capacity loss.
How a redox flow battery works
The energy is not held in solid electrodes but in two liquid, water-based electrolytes in separate tanks. Pumps drive them through a cell stack in which a membrane separates the two circuits; charging and discharging happen there. Because the tanks determine the energy and the stack determines the power, both can be sized independently: twice the storage duration only needs larger tanks. In vanadium systems both sides contain the same element in different oxidation states, so crossover through the membrane costs efficiency and temporarily capacity, but does not consume the electrolyte; rebalancing both sides recovers the capacity. The water-based electrolyte is non-flammable, but contains sulphuric acid.
Load capability
Rated power is about 0.23 to 0.34 C relative to rated capacity. At close to full power a unit is empty after two to four hours depending on design: CellCube states 467 kW for 2 hours, Invinity 75 kW for 2.25 hours for the VS3 and 150 kW for 4 hours for the Endurium. At the short durations the battery delivers only 61 to 73 % of its rated capacity; the full capacity is only available at eight to ten hours. The reason is that cell voltage and thus available power fall as the state of charge drops, and high currents increase internal losses. Manufacturers therefore give pairs of power and duration instead of a fixed C-rate. The datasheets show no short-term overload beyond rated power; for Invinity, peak power is explicitly equal to continuous power. Lithium batteries, by contrast, can also be designed for one hour or less.
While running, the batteries respond within 5 to 200 milliseconds; from standstill it takes up to a minute because the pumps first have to circulate the electrolyte. According to the manufacturers, the full range from 0 to 100 % state of charge can be used without damage and cycle life is practically unlimited; Invinity states capacity loss below 0.1 to 0.2 % per year. The trade-off is a DC round-trip efficiency of at most 73 to 84 %.
| System | Capacity kWh | Rated power kW | C-rate 1/h | DC efficiency max. % | Weight t | Floor load kN/m² |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CellCube FB 333-4 | 1,525 | 515 | 0.34 | 84 | 135 | ≈ 22 |
| Invinity VS3-022 | 230 | 78 | 0.34 | 75 | 24.6 | ≈ 16 |
| Invinity Endurium Enterprise (module) | 640 | 150 | 0.23 | 73–74 | 27.5 | ≈ 18 |
Sources: CellCube datasheet release 4.2; Invinity VS3-022 datasheet; Invinity Endurium Enterprise datasheet (09/2025). Floor load calculated as evenly distributed from weight and footprint.
Prices
Hardly any manufacturer publishes list prices; offers are made per project. The price per kilowatt-hour falls with storage duration because only tanks and electrolyte grow with it, while the cost of the cell stack is spread over more kilowatt-hours. The electrolyte accounts for 40 to 60 % of system cost. Leasing the electrolyte instead of buying it cuts the initial investment by 35 to 40 %, but the lease payments add up again over 25 years.
| Offer | Duration | Price | ≈ €/kWh |
|---|---|---|---|
| China, award 09/2025 (Rongke, 2.5 MW / 10 MWh) | 4 h | 1.96 CNY/Wh | ≈ 255 |
| Western suppliers, turnkey | 4 h | 450–750 US$/kWh | ≈ 395–660 |
| Western suppliers | 8–10 h | 350–450 US$/kWh | ≈ 305–395 |
| Lithium iron phosphate, China, awards 03/2025 | mixed | 0.47 CNY/Wh | ≈ 61 |
Sources: Sina Finance, 26 Sep 2025 (Rongke Power award); How to Store Electricity, VRFB cost 2026; China Energy Storage Network, tenders March 2025. Converted at the rate of 23 Sep 2026: 1 € = 7.67 CNY = 1.14 US$ (finanzen.net EUR/CNY, EUR/USD). The Chinese prices generally apply to delivery of the storage system in China; construction, grid connection, transport to Europe and duties are not included. The lithium price is a weighted average across systems of different durations; for 2-hour systems it was 0.52 CNY/Wh.
Use in buildings
- For single-family homes there is practically nothing on offer; the smallest modules are around 50 kWh (VFlowTech) and 230 kWh (Invinity VS3). VoltStorage had offered a 6.8 kWh home unit, then turned to large-scale storage and ceased operations in 2025; ESS Inc. took over the technology in 2026.
- The technology only becomes competitive from about eight hours of storage and many cycles per year: in districts, commercial sites and on the grid, for example to shift solar power into the night or to run a heat pump for hours.
- For load peaks, inrush currents and fast charging the power is too limited. One option is to combine it with a lithium battery that handles the peaks while the flow battery carries the base load and the many cycles; at Energy Superhub Oxford both technologies work together in this way.
- The electrolyte is heavy: evenly distributed over the footprint this gives a calculated 16 to 22 kN/m², locally more under feet and skids. That can rarely be accommodated on a floor slab; these systems belong on their own base slab or strip foundation. Because the electrolyte contains sulphuric acid, a drip tray and containment at the site also need to be checked.
Manufacturers
- Rongke Power (Dalian, China) — market leader, more than 3.5 GWh installed, annual production about 1 GW
- Sumitomo Electric (Japan) — vanadium flow since the 1980s, grid storage in Japan and California
- Invinity Energy Systems (UK, Canada) — VS3 and Endurium modules for 0.2 to 1,000 MWh
- CellCube (Austria) — more than 130 installations worldwide, systems of 1.5 to 3 MWh
- VRB Energy (Canada, USA) — kW and MW class
- SCHMID Group (Germany) — EverFlow product line
- VFlowTech (Singapore) — PowerCube module, 50 kWh per unit
- ESS Inc. (USA) — iron flow battery for 8 to more than 20 hours, acquired the VoltStorage technology
A regularly updated overview of some 30 manufacturers is kept by Vanitec, the vanadium industry association.
Systems in operation
- Jimusar, Xinjiang (China) — 200 MW / 1,000 MWh, China Three Gorges with Rongke Power as supplier, in full operation since 31 Dec 2025; the first gigawatt-hour-scale flow battery, next to a 1 GW solar park
- Wushi, Xinjiang (China) — 175 MW / 700 MWh, Rongke Power, completed December 2024, grid-forming; succeeded the 100 MW / 400 MWh Dalian plant commissioned in 2022 as the largest
- Minami-Hayakita, Hokkaido (Japan) — 17 MW / 51 MWh, Sumitomo Electric, since April 2022; balances 162 MW of wind power from 15 wind farms
- Pfinztal, Baden-Württemberg (Germany) — 2 MW / 20 MWh at Fraunhofer ICT, in test operation since 2025; Europe's largest vanadium flow battery, coupled directly to a 2 MW wind turbine via the DC link
- Energy Superhub Oxford (UK) — 2 MW / 5 MWh from 27 VS3 modules, Invinity, since 2022; combined with 50 MW of lithium, the flow battery takes the frequent cycles first
Retrieved 23 Sep 2026.
For a specific project it pays to compare with thermal storage: where heat is ultimately needed, a sorption or latent heat store can be the cheaper solution.
Building energy-efficiently is not in itself building in a climate-friendly or ecologically sustainable way. A building interacts with its immediate environment and with the climatic conditions of the present and the future.
The points below are those that should be considered at an early design stage. They do not list every requirement exhaustively; they give a first overview.
Windows and glazed areas
A low U-value minimises heat loss across the envelope. Setting the windows deep into the reveal exposes them to little direct solar gain in summer, which lowers the cooling load. With the low sun of winter the gain is welcome instead. In the 2226 project in Lustenau, the 76 cm wall produces reveal depths of around 70 cm that exploit precisely this effect. Roof lights and roof windows should be avoided in such a concept.
Covering heat and cooling demand
To minimise heating demand, the waste heat that occurs anyway — from processes, people, equipment and lighting — should be used. Helpful measures are:
- Components with high internal thermal storage capacity — effective to a depth of roughly 10 cm depending on the material
- Open, connected spaces to distribute internal heat gains
- Generous room heights: a large air volume lowers the CO₂ concentration and ventilation heat losses
- Controlled removal of lighting and process waste heat, returned through a heat exchanger
- Short cross-ventilation intervals through controlled vents instead of permanent mechanical ventilation
A well-designed building form can reduce the cooling load to zero. Where technical cooling is nevertheless required, the heating technology should be chosen so that it also serves for cooling in summer. Heating and cooling ceilings are more suitable than wall or floor surfaces because they remain exposed. Thermally activated building systems respond slowly and are unsuitable in residential use.
Energy supply
The aim is to draw as little energy as possible from suppliers. It must be examined which local sources can be used — wind, water, sun, geothermal energy, air — and what quantity can be generated, transported and stored on site for flexibility.
- Photovoltaic arrays on roofs and façades
- Small wind turbines (horizontal or vertical axis)
- Small turbines in flowing water
- Storage with as many charge cycles, as large a capacity and as good a recyclability as possible — on an industrial scale, vanadium redox flow batteries for instance
Heat generation by combustion is defensible only where the fuel releases no more CO₂ than is bound during its regeneration.
Microclimate and rainwater
- Green roofs and façades, including the areas beneath the photovoltaic array, counteract solar heating of the components
- Shading must not cost daylight — compensating with artificial light raises energy consumption. In front of large glazed areas on lower floors, trees at sufficient distance are suitable
- A planting scheme for the outdoor areas counteracts the heating of sealed surfaces; the sealed proportion should be minimised
- Traffic areas with low thermal conductivity and storage capacity, built to be permeable
The building in the climate of 2050
- Mean annual precipitation is rising — drainage must be sized for the increase
- Avoid hollows and high degrees of sealing outdoors; green roofs delay run-off
- Build access areas to be permeable
- The number of hot days above 30 °C rises markedly — measures against local heat stress are therefore obligatory at concept stage
Basis: internal criteria paper “Climate-Neutral Construction — Climate and Ecology Criteria”, as at 30 August 2026.
Five factors govern the procurement and use of building materials in climate-neutral construction.
- Low production energy demand, using CO₂-neutral primary energy
- Low transport energy demand — the case for local resources
- Recyclability and compostability
- CO₂ storage capacity, with a view to a negative balance
- Renewable raw materials
Examples are hemp-lime blocks in a timber or concrete frame for the external wall, or a solid concrete structure with hemp or wood fibre insulation. Flat roof areas can be built as glulam or timber joist decks; above-rafter and between-rafter insulation in wood fibre boards or as blown natural fibre. Renewable raw materials bind CO₂ permanently — set against this is the energy needed for manufacture and transport.
Ecological building materials are not universally compostable, but they are recyclable without environmental pollutants provided no harmful additives were used in production. That deserves attention — as does the separability of the component layers: what cannot be dismantled by material type ends up as waste rather than raw material.
Building physics data
| Material | λ W/(m·K) | ρ kg/m³ | μ | c J/(kg·K) | DIN 4102-1 | DIN EN 13501-1 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Flax mats | 0,039 | 30–40 | 1–2 | 1.550–2.300 | B2 | E |
| Hemp (loose wool) | 0,045 | 50–60 | 1–2 | 2.200 | B2–B1 | E, C-s2, d0 |
| Hemp jute | 0,043 | 35–40 | 1–2 | 2.300 | B2 | E |
| Hemp mats | 0,043 | 30–110 | 1–2 | 1.600–2.300 | B2 | E |
| Wood fibre (loose) | 0,040 | 30–45 | 1–2 | 2.100 | B2 | E |
| Wood fibre mats | 0,038 | 40–55 | 1–3 | 2.100 | B2 | E |
| Wood fibre boards | 0,040 | 110–270 | 2–5 | 2.100 | B2 | E |
| Wood shavings | 0,045 | 90–360 | 2 | n/a | B2 | E |
| Wood wool boards | 0,090 | 330–500 | 2–5 | 2.100 | B1 | B, s1, d0 |
| Jute mats | 0,039 | 30–40 | 1–2 | 2.350 | B2 | E |
| Cork board (expanded) | 0,040 | 120 | 5–10 | 1.800 | B2 | E |
| Cork-clay board | 0,080 | 200–300 | 10 | 1.254 | B2–B1 | E |
| Sheep wool | 0,036 | 20–90 | 1–2 | 1.300–1.730 | B2 | E |
| Reed boards | 0,065 | 150 | 3–6,5 | 1.200 | B2 | E |
| Seagrass | 0,045 | 65–75 | 1–2 | 2.502 | B2 | E |
| Straw bales | 0,052 | 85–115 | 2 | 2.000 | B2 | E |
| Blown straw insulation | 0,043 | 105 | 2,8 | 2.100 | B2 | E |
| Cellulose fibre (loose) | 0,039 | 28–65 | 1–2 | 2.100–2.544 | B2 | E to B-s2, d0 |
| Cellulose boards | 0,042 | 70–145 | 2–3 | 2.000 | B2 | E |
| Polystyrene (expanded) — comparison | 0,035 | 11–30 | 20–100 | 1.400 | B2–B1 | E |
| Stone wool boards — comparison | 0,035 | 15–130 | 1–2 | 830–1.000 | A1 | A1 |
λ as design value. Source: market survey “Dämmstoffe aus nachwachsenden Rohstoffen”, Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe e. V. (FNR), order no. 317, 10th edition 2019, p. 13.
Dynamic stiffness
| Material | s′ in MN/m³ |
|---|---|
| Cellulose | 20 |
| Hemp fibre felt | 22 |
| Sheep wool | 50 |
| Flax mats | 57 |
| Cork granulate | 120 |
| Wood fibre boards | 30–150 |
| Reed | 208 |
| Wood wool boards | 300 |
| Cork boards | 500 |
Sorted ascending — the lower s′, the better the impact sound reduction. Source: FNR, order no. 317, 10th edition 2019, p. 11.
For sustainability certification it is recommended not to select XPS, PUR or EPS insulation unless it is genuinely required.
- Principal
- Tino Josef Ritter
- Degree
- M.Sc. in Engineering (Energy Systems)
- Practice
- Planning and consulting practice for building physics and energy efficiency
- Established
- 1 January 2016
Network
Thermal performance decides energy demand, comfort and freedom from damage — and it is won or lost in the details.
Verification and detailing
- Thermal performance certificates for residential and non-residential buildings
- Component build-ups and U-value calculation
- Detailed thermal bridge calculation instead of blanket surcharges
- Assessment of junction details in solid and timber construction
Simulation
- Building simulation (VDI 6007)
- Thermal simulation (DIN EN ISO 13791)
The calculated thermal bridge assessment regularly pays for itself where the blanket surcharge costs an efficiency level — we tell you in advance whether that is the case for your building.
All planning and calculation services required to meet sound insulation requirements — in solid and in timber construction.
Verification to DIN 4109-1:2018 and DIN 4109-5:2020
- Residential buildings, non-residential buildings and heritage-listed properties
- Airborne and impact sound insulation between occupancy units
- Component and junction details in timber construction
- Assessment of external noise and façade requirements
In multi-storey timber construction in particular, early coordination pays off: the acoustically viable solution often determines the floor build-up.
Moisture is the most common cause of building damage. Whether a component stays dry is decided by the interplay of build-up, use and air change.
Moisture control
- Verification to DIN EN ISO 13788
- Verification to DIN 4108-3:2024
- Hygrothermal simulation for critical build-ups
Ventilation
- Ventilation concepts for new build and retrofit
- Sizing and assessment of ventilation measures
After a window replacement in an existing building in particular, the concept is the most effective protection against moisture damage.
We provide all services and calculations for planning and funding under the programmes of KfW and BAFA.
Accreditations: KfW, BAFA, WTA
- Residential KfW Efficiency House (BzA and BnD)
- Non-residential KfW Efficiency House (gBzA and gBnD)
- Individual measures, residential and non-residential, KfW and BAFA
- Heritage-listed residential (BzA and BnD)
- Heritage-listed non-residential (gBzA and gBnD)
- Individual measures on heritage-listed residential and non-residential property, KfW and BAFA
BzA — confirmation for the application · BnD — confirmation after completion · gBzA / gBnD — the corresponding confirmations for non-residential buildings. These are the designations used by the German funding programmes and are given here in their original form.
How it runs
- Initial discussion and classification of the project
- Calculation and comparison of the attainable efficiency levels
- Construction supervision during the works
Funding rates, programme numbers and application deadlines change regularly. We establish the position applicable to your project in the initial discussion.
Enquiry
Submitting opens your email programme with the message prepared. No data is stored on this website.
This is a convenience translation. The German version is the authoritative one.
- Provider
- Tino Josef Ritter, M.Sc. in Engineering (Energy Systems) — Planning and consulting practice for building physics and energy efficiency
- Address
- Feuerwehrstrasse 44, 77933 Lahr, Germany
- Mobile
- +49 (0) 176 8232 9156
- Landline
- +49 (0) 7821 274 501 4
- ritter@bauphysik.direct
- Established
- 1 January 2016
Dispute resolution
We are neither willing nor obliged to take part in dispute resolution proceedings before a consumer arbitration board.
Liability for content and links
The content of these pages has been compiled with the greatest care. We cannot, however, warrant its accuracy, completeness or currency. The operator of any linked external site is responsible for its content; at the time of linking, no legal infringements were apparent.
To be completed: VAT identification number, professional title, chamber, professional indemnity insurance, party responsible under § 18 (2) MStV.
This is a convenience translation. The German version is the authoritative one.
Controller
Tino Josef Ritter, Feuerwehrstrasse 44, 77933 Lahr, Germany — phone +49 (0) 176 8232 9156, email ritter@bauphysik.direct
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Draft, and a convenience translation. This text has not been reviewed by a lawyer, the entries marked […] are still to be completed, and only the German version is legally binding. In the event of any discrepancy, the German wording prevails.
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As at 30 August 2026. Convenience translation — the German version prevails.